Lycopene and cholesterol -
Higher serum carotenoid levels were associated not just with a lower prevalence of the metabolic syndrome, but also with fewer abnormal metabolic syndrome components.
A significant association between lycopene and the metabolic syndrome was described only for normal-weight and overweight participants, but not in obese patients, according to a study enrolling 13, subjects, probably related to an increased oxidative stress and decreased antioxidant ability, due to sequestration of lycopene in the adipose tissue and more important inflammation in obese Han et al.
On the other hand, daily tomato juice intake reduced waist circumference, cholesterol, and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 inflammatory adipokine and increased adiponectin anti-inflammatory adipokine levels in 30 young, healthy Taiwanese females Li et al.
Lycopene was shown to impair pro-inflammatory cytokine production, such as IL-6, IL-1b, and TNF-α, preventing insulin resistance Gouranton et al.
A large study, including middle-aged, overweight volunteers reported no changes of conventional cardiovascular risk factors, inflammatory tests, insulin resistance and sensitivity, lipid profile, oxidized LDL, von Willebrand factor, and arterial stiffness after high daily intake of lycopene, despite good compliance Thies et al.
Several studies reported an association between serum lycopene levels and intima-media thickness Gianetti et al. Zou et al. revealed a decrease in carotid artery intima-media thickness IMT after 12 months of lutein and lycopene supplementation 20 mg each in Chinese patients with subclinical atherosclerosis, demonstrating more effective results after the intake of both lutein and lycopene compared to lutein alone Zou et al.
High serum levels of lycopene, alpha and beta-carotene were associated with a slow IMT progression during 7 years in a study including middle-aged men from Eastern Finland Karppi et al. The association between lycopene level and IMT was mentioned in the scientific literature also for elderly Finish subjects Karppi et al.
Higher carotenoids levels lutein, zeaxanthin, and beta-cryptoxanthin; Figure 1 were correlated with reduced IMT progression over 18 months, in a study with middle-aged participants, free of cardiovascular symptoms at baseline.
Beta-carotene and lycopene levels were not significantly associated with IMT progression Dwyer et al. An inverse correlation was found in women between lycopene levels and IMT, independent of conventional risk factors, in a large study including 1, subjects McQuillan et al.
Several studies revealed the anti-atherosclerotic effect of lycopene McQuillan et al. The possible reasons for this obvious discrepancy are manifold and include methodological differences in the study designs, such as different lycopene sources, the use of food-frequency questionnaires, different intervention times, the methodology used to assess vascular function, measurement of blood, adipose or dietary lycopene.
Besides those, the use of unstandardized amounts of tomato food products, different modes of delivery, misclassification of overall tomato intake, combination of lycopene with other antioxidants, different processing procedures or eating behavior influenced by cultural and temporal patterns among different individuals, may influence the results Sesso et al.
Other carotenoids extracted from tomatoes could be also partially responsible for the effects attributed to lycopene Rao, This is underlined by a study that could not find beneficial effects for lycopene supplementation alone, but beneficial effects upon supplementation with tomato-based products Sesso et al.
Some studies did not consider dietary intake at all Yeo et al. The interaction flavanone metabolites—lycopene is difficult to assess, considering the rapid metabolization of the mentioned metabolites Habauzit et al.
Duration of treatment, dose and bioavailability of lycopene, and vascular endpoint were also different in the studies published on this topic and might have influenced obtained results. Several factors influence the bioavailability of lycopene, such as season, the processing of tomatoes, their origin, dimensions, shape, and the way they are consumed Gajendragadkar et al.
Absorption of lycopene may be reduced by diets rich in fibers and in elderly people Kong et al. The isomerization of lycopene is another source of variability. Fresh tomatoes contain lycopene in all-trans form Shi and Le Maguer, Several factors, including high temperatures, light, oxygen, acids, and metal ions enable isomerization of lycopene Kong et al.
Lycopene degradation occurs during thermal processing, mainly isomerization of all- trans to cis forms and oxidation Shi and Le Maguer, Dehydrated and powdered tomatoes have poor lycopene stability, depending of storage in a hermetically sealed atmosphere, and a significant increase of cis-isomers, giving the highest bioavailability of lycopene and higher ability to be incorporated in lipoproteins Shi and Le Maguer, ; Kong et al.
Uptake of cis lycopene is significantly higher than all trans-isomers Kong et al. Lycopene is very bioavailable in the presence of oil, especially in monounsaturated oils, other dietary fats and processed tomato products Shi and Le Maguer, ; Basu and Imrhan, ; Kong et al.
Lycopene can increase the antioxidant properties of vitamin C, E, polyphenols and beta-carotene in a synergistic way Kong et al.
Supplementation with tomatoes, containing lycopene red tomatoes or not yellow tomatoes , showed a better antioxidant effect than lycopene alone, probably due to the synergistic effects of naturally occurring secondary metabolites in tomatoes Basu and Imrhan, ; Gitenay et al.
Grapefruits also include in their composition not just lycopene but also flavonoids, with several benefits, such as the anti-inflammatory and anti-atherogenic effect, improving vascular reactivity, reducing insulin resistance, decreasing arterial stiffness, LDL cholesterol, and blood pressure Habauzit et al.
These synergistic effects hamper assessment of quantitative and qualitative effects of lycopene as a dietary factor. Several studies included healthy participants or subjects with different disorders and cardiovascular risk factors Kong et al. Enrolling volunteers with established elevated risk markers for cardiovascular disorders may increase the probability of detecting changes, especially in short time studies Thies et al.
Also, several other uncontrolled or unidentified lifestyle factors or dietary constituents associated with cardiovascular disorders, may provide alternative explanations for the different study results Sesso et al.
Genetic factors remain unconsidered at all in all of the reviewed publications, although they are reported to strongly influence circulating concentrations of lycopene in different ethnicities Zubair et al.
Furthermore, plasma, adipose, and dietary carotenoids are not sufficiently correlated to be interchangeably Sesso et al. Most of the studies considered only tomatoes and tomato products as lycopene source.
It will be the aim of future human intervention studies to include other lycopene containing fruits such as watermelon, papaya, red grapefruits, and guava, and consider synergistic effects with other components and their importance in primary and secondary cardiovascular prophylaxis.
Benefits of lycopene should be especially considered in patients with high cardiovascular risk, statin intolerance, borderline hypertension, aspirin resistance, hyperactive platelets, vascular inflammatory diseases, metabolic syndrome and coronary heart disease, and its inclusion in combination therapies for the mentioned disorders, should be approached.
Further mechanistic research is needed to identify new targets for prevention and complementary treatment of cardiovascular disorders. The present review supports the importance of lycopene in improving vascular function and in the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disorders.
The demonstrated effects of lycopene in view of cardiovascular health comprise its general antioxidant and anti-inflammatory abilities, the antiplatelet, anti-apoptotic and antihypertensive properties, the ability to improve endothelial function, the metabolic profile and ventricular remodeling, reduction of arterial stiffness as well as reduction of size of atherosclerotic plaque.
Lycopene exerts favorable effects in patients with subclinical atherosclerosis, metabolic syndrome, hypertension, peripheral vascular disease, and several other cardiovascular disorders, but sometimes conflicting results were obtained.
Clearly, more and better-designed studies will be necessary to improve our understanding of the positive effects of lycopene on vascular health and to elucidate the involved mechanisms on a molecular level.
Future cardiovascular disease prevention strategies might include lycopene-enriched products, lycopene supplementation and new combinations including lycopene. Future studies focused on dietary lycopene and its synergistic effects with other dietary components in different study populations, with elevated cardiovascular risk, are highly warranted and might enable development of functional foods useful in prevention and complementary treatment of cardiovascular disorders.
IM is the author of the first draft of the manuscript. DS, AC, CM, JH, and AA contributed toward revising the paper and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work. All authors agreed on the finally submitted version of the manuscript.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The authors acknowledge the support by the Polish KNOW Leading National Research Centre Scientific Consortium Healthy Animal—Safe Food, decision of Ministry of Science and Higher Education No.
Abdel-Daim, M. Lycopene attenuates tulathromycin and diclofenac sodium-induced cardiotoxicity in mice. doi: PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Abushouk, A. Cardioprotective mechanisms of phytochemicals against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity.
Agarwal, S. Tomato lycopene and its role in human health and chronic diseases. PubMed Abstract Google Scholar. Ahn, J. Lycopene inhibits hepatic steatosis via microRNAinduced downregulation of fatty acid-binding protein 7 in mice fed a high-fat diet.
Food Res. Ahuja, K. Effects of olive oil and tomato lycopene combination on serum lycopene, lipid profile, and lipid oxidation. Nutrition 22, — Aman, U. Tomato lycopene attenuates myocardial infarction induced by isoproterenol: electrocardiographic, biochemical and anti-apoptotic study.
Asian Pac. Anjos Ferreira, A. Effect of lycopene on doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity: an echocardiographic, histological and morphometrical assessment.
Basic Clin. Atanasov, A. Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: a review.
Bae, J. Barrier protective effects of lycopene in human endothelial cells. Bansal, P. Cardioprotective effect of lycopene in the experimental model of myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury.
Basu, A. Tomatoes versus lycopene in oxidative stress and carcinogenesis: conclusions from clinical trials. Belovic, M. Tomato Solanum Lycopersicum L. processing main product juice and by-product pomace bioactivity potential measured as antioxidant activity and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition.
Food Process. CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Blum, A. Tomato-rich Mediterranean diet does not modify inflammatory markers. Böhm, V. Lycopene and heart health. Burton-Freeman, B. Whole food versus supplement: comparing the clinical evidence of tomato intake and lycopene supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors.
Protective activity of processed tomato products on postprandial oxidation and inflammation: a clinical trial in healthy weight men and women. Cavalcante, J. Aortic stiffness: current understanding and future directions.
Chen, L. Effects and mechanisms of lycopene on the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells. Cheng, H. Lycopene and tomato and risk of cardiovascular diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis of epiedemiological evidence. Food Sci. Cooney, M. Improvement in the estimation of cardiovascular risk by carotid intima-medial thickness: a report from the Dublin Cardiohealth station study.
Costa-Rodrigues, J. Can lycopene be considered an effective protection against cardiovascular disease? Food Chem. Denniss, S. Effect of short-term lycopene supplementation and postprandial dyslipidemia on plasma antioxidants and biomarkers of endothelial health in young, healthy individuals.
Health Risk Manag. Dwyer, J. Progression of carotid intima-media thickness and plasma antioxidants: the Los Angeles Atherosclerosis Study.
Fantin, F. Abdominal obesity and subclinical vascular damage in the elderly. Figueroa, A. Effects of watermelon supplementation on arterial stiffness and wave reflection amplitude in postmenopausal women. Menopause 20, — Influence of L-citrulline and watermelon supplementation on vascular function and exercise performance.
Care 20, 92— Frederiksen, H. Dietary supplementation with an extract of lycopene-rich tomatoes does not reduce atherosclerosis in Watanabe Heritable Hyperlipidemic rabbits. Gajendragadkar, P. Effects of oral lycopene supplementation on vascular function in patients with cardiovascular disease and healthy volunteers: a randomised controlled trial.
PLoS ONE 9:e Gammone, M. Carotenoids: potential allies of cardiovascular health? Food Nutr. Gao, Y. Gianetti, J. Inverse association between carotid intima-media thickness and the antioxidant lycopene in atherosclerosis. Heart J. Gitenay, D. Comparison of lycopene and tomato effects on biomarkers of oxidative stress in vitamin E deficient rats.
Goff, D. Jr, Lloyd-Jones, D. CrossRef Full Text. Gouranton, E. Lycopene inhibits proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine expression in adipose tissue. Habauzit, V. Flavanones protect from arterial stiffness in postmenopausal women consuming grapefruit juice for 6 mo: a randomized, controlled, crossover trial.
Han, G. Higher serum lycopene is associated with reduced prevalence of hypertension in overweight or obese adults. Higher levels of serum lycopene are associated with reduced mortality in individuals with metabolic syndrome.
The influence of BMI on the association between serum lycopene and the metabolic syndrome. He, Q. Metabolomic analysis of the response of growing pigs to dietary L-arginine supplementation. Amino Acids 37, — Lycopene attenuates inflammation and apoptosis in post-myocardial infarction remodeling by inhibiting the nuclear factor-kappaB signaling pathway.
He, Y. Cell Longev. Heber, D. Overview of mechanisms of action of lycopene. Hollman, P. The biological relevance of direct antioxidant effects of polyphenols for cardiovascular health in humans is not established.
Hong, M. Watermelon consumption improves inflammation and antioxidant capacity in rats fed an atherogenic diet.
Hosseini, B. Hsu, Y. Characterizing the lipid-lowering effects and antioxidant mechanisms of tomato paste. Hu, M. Comparison of lycopene and fluvastatin effects on atherosclerosis induced by a high-fat diet in rabbits.
Nutrition 24, — Hung, C. Lycopene inhibits TNF-alpha-induced endothelial ICAM-1 expression and monocyte-endothelial adhesion. Ito, Y. Cardiovascular disease mortality and serum carotenoid levels: a Japanese population-based follow-up study.
Jobgen, W. Regulatory role for the arginine-nitric oxide pathway in metabolism of energy substrates. Karagiannis, G. Integrative pathway dissection of molecular mechanisms of moxLDL-induced vascular smooth muscle phenotype transformation.
BMC Cardiovasc. Karimi, G. Protective effects of lycopene and tomato extract against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity. Karppi, J. Plasma carotenoids are related to intima-media thickness of the carotid artery wall in men from eastern Finland.
Serum carotenoids reduce progression of early atherosclerosis in the carotid artery wall among Eastern Finnish men. PLoS ONE 8:e Low serum lycopene and β-carotene increase risk of acute myocardial infarction in men.
Public Health 22, — Khan, N. Efficacy of lycopene on modulation of renal antioxidant enzymes, ACE and ACE gene expression in hyperlipidaemic rats. Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst. Kim, G. Is carotid artery ultrasound still useful method for evaluation of atherosclerosis?
Korean Circ. Kim, J. Effects of lycopene supplementation on oxidative stress and markers of endothelial function in healthy men.
Atherosclerosis , — Kim, O. Independent inverse relationship between serum lycopene concentration and arterial stiffness. Klipstein-Grobusch, K. Serum carotenoids and atherosclerosis.
The Rotterdam study. Magnification of aortic sections lower panel. B Mean intima-media thickness per animal in µm. Endothelial-dependent and endothelial-independent vasodilation in isolated rabbit aortic rings was measured after 4 weeks of diets.
No differences were found between all animal groups Figure 6. Similar results were obtained with isolated rabbit carotid rings data not shown.
In accordance with the results of the vasorelaxation experiments, plasma cGMP levels were not influenced by the high-cholesterol diet and lycopene had no impact data not shown. Also, signs of pro-oxidative changes such as serum levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 MCP-1 and lipid peroxidation TBARS in serum as well as plasma levels of 8-isoprostane 8-iso-prostaglandin F 2α were not increased after the high-cholesterol diet and were not influenced by lycopene supplementation data not shown.
Endothelial-dependent vasodilation induced by acetylcholine Ach, A and endothelium-independent vasodilation by sodium nitroprusside SNP, B in isolated rabbit aortic rings after treatments with the indicated diets for 4 weeks.
Graphs show relaxation as percent of maximal contraction. The main results of our study are that lycopene supplementation for 4 weeks strongly suppressed diet-induced increases in total and LDL cholesterol levels in serum and reduced the accumulation of cholesteryl esters in aortic tissue of rabbits.
However, we observed no significant differences in surface lipid depositions among all high-cholesterol fed groups. Furthermore, no advanced atherosclerotic changes in the aortae, increase of pro-oxidant parameters in serum, or impairments of vasoreactivity in isolated blood vessels were detected in all animal groups.
The latter findings indicate that the administration of the high-cholesterol diet for 4 weeks resulted in a very early, initial state of atherosclerosis in our rabbit model. High LDL cholesterol levels represent an independent risk factor for the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases.
Similar reductions of blood lipid levels by lycopene had been observed in two other rabbit experiments. However, a slight increase in HDL cholesterol levels did not reach statistical significance [21].
In the same animal model of atherosclerosis, supplementation with three doses of lycopene in the chow for 12 weeks dose-dependently decreased diet-induced serum total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels and increased HDL cholesterol [22]. The reason for the lack of effects of lycopene in WWHL rabbits may originate in defective LDL receptors in these animals [24].
Since lycopene is transported in the blood mainly in LDL particles [25] , a functional LDL receptor may be essential to obtain cardiovascular beneficial effects of lycopene. What are the mechanisms behind the cholesterol-lowering effects of lycopene?
It should be noticed in this context that basal cholesterol levels in rabbits are very low. Primarily, lycopene led to suppressed cholesterol uptake rather than to a reduction of existing circulating cholesterol levels in these animals.
In human macrophages, lycopene reduced intracellular cholesterol levels by decreasing the expression of 3-hydroxymethyl glutaryl Coenzyme A HMG-CoA reductase, a rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis [26].
However, expression levels of HMG-CoA reductase in the liver were not affected by supplementation with lycopene in our animal experiment data not shown.
Increased faecal cholesterol excretion, together with reduced liver HMG-CoA reductase activity, was shown after dietary lycopene intake in rabbits, suggesting decreased intestinal cholesterol absorption and biosynthesis [22].
Results for the effects of lycopene on plasma lipid levels in human intervention studies are not consistent. Supplementation with tomato extract capsules 4 mg lycopene daily for 6 months decreased total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol levels in postmenopausal women [27].
No effects on blood lipid levels were obtained after supplementation with a tomato extract containing 15 mg lycopene daily for 8 weeks in mild hypertensive patients [28].
HDL cholesterol was not changed by lycopene uptake, independently of dosages applied [12]. Despite markedly reduced serum cholesterol levels, we found no effects on surface lipid deposition in the aortae of lycopene-supplemented rabbits.
This represents an unexpected result. In the studies with atherosclerotic NZW rabbits noted above, the decrease in blood lipid levels was associated with a concomitant reduction in aortic plaque area in lycopene-treated animals [21] , [22].
In one study, the lipid-lowering effects and the extent of atherosclerotic lesion reduction by lycopene were comparable with statins [21]. However, there are a number of differences in study design between these studies und ours. Changes in aortic lesion size were assessed after 8 and 12 weeks, whereas in our study we aimed at shorter intervention times.
Hu et al. In addition to determining cholesterol-lowering effects in plasma, we found that supplementation with lycopene reduced the amount of cholesteryl ester in the aorta.
This represents a novel and relevant finding. The invasion of lipids in the aortic tissue is the initial step in plaque progression and represents a prerequisite for development of advanced aortic plaques.
The reduced accumulation of lipids within the aortic tissue, as opposed to equal surface deposition, could point to a beneficial effect of lycopene on further progression of atherosclerotic changes. Several reasons could potentially explain why we did not observe reduced aortic surface lipid deposition, in addition to decreased accumulation of lipids within the aortae.
It could be argued that the lycopene plasma levels obtained in our study were too low to exert anti-atherogenic effects beyond reduced tissue lipid levels. This concentration was even higher in comparison to the study of Hu et al. describing reduced atherosclerotic lesions in rabbits after supplementation with lycopene [21].
Another difference of our study represents the duration of high-cholesterol diet administration. Certainly, longer intervention times as 4 weeks used in our study would result in more pronounced atherosclerotic lesions.
However, our major objective was to investigate the effects of lycopene on cardiovascular parameters before the establishment of distinct atherosclerotic lesions in the vessels.
We therefore decided to conduct our study for a shorter time period of 4 weeks. We observed very early not advanced signs of atherosclerosis in our animals. These initial states of atherosclerosis were influenced by lycopene supplementation.
However, in contrast to other studies with longer duration [29] , we did not observe diminished endothelial-dependent vasodilation in aortic rings after 4 weeks of high-cholesterol diet, suggesting that longer intervention times may have resulted in different outcomes.
There are, to date, no prospective human intervention studies on the effects of lycopene or tomato products on the progression of atherosclerosis.
An inverse correlation of plasma lycopene levels to cardiovascular events was found in various epidemiological studies [30] , [31]. Therefore, it needs to be proven whether supplementation with lycopene is able to delay the onset of cardiovascular diseases in humans.
In conclusion, increased lycopene plasma levels after supplementation were associated with reduced total and LDL cholesterol in serum as well as with lower aortic cholesteryl ester levels in New Zealand White NZW rabbits.
However, no significant impact of lycopene on surface aortic lipid deposition was observed. It is accordingly still eligible to ascertain the consequences of reduced blood cholesterol levels by lycopene on the progression of cardiovascular diseases in humans.
The authors thank Minoo Moobed, Thomas Düsterhöft, Angelika Vietzke, Wanda Michaelis, and Susanne Metzkow for their excellent technical assistance. Conceived and designed the experiments: ML MF VB GB KS VS.
Performed the experiments: MF JK KF AT GL SL. Analyzed the data: ML MF JK KF AT GL SL GS AL VS. Wrote the paper: ML.
Edited the manuscript: AL MF JK KF VB GL VS. Browse Subject Areas? Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field.
Article Authors Metrics Comments Media Coverage Reader Comments Figures. Abstract Background Lycopene is the main carotenoid in tomatoes, where it is found in high concentrations.
Conclusions Lycopene supplementation for 4 weeks increased lycopene plasma levels in the animals. Introduction Epidemiological studies indicate that the consumption of tomatoes and tomato products is inversely associated with the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases [1].
Materials and Methods Animal experiments Male New Zealand White NZW rabbits from Charles River Laboratories Sulzfeld, Germany at 18 weeks weight 3. Lycopene plasma levels Carotenoids were extracted as described [14] , with slight modifications [15].
Measurement of serum blood lipids Fasting total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and triglycerides in serum were determined using enzymatic methods with Cobas C module Roche Diagnostics GmbH, Mannheim, Germany. Determination of initial aortic lesion area The aortae were carefully dissected in situ, then excised and fixed with formalin.
Lipid deposition in tissues Lipid accumulation in left carotid arteries and in the ascending aorta was evaluated by Oil red O staining Sudan Red 5B.
Intima-media thickness Histological evaluation was done by Elastica van Gieson staining. Vasorelaxation studies After 4 weeks of treatment, abdominal aortae 2 cm-sections below the parts that were used for en face and right carotid arteries from the animals were rapidly excised, cleaned of surrounding tissue, and cut into rings of 2 mm length under semi-sterile conditions.
Markers of oxidative changes Serum concentrations of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 MCP-1 as an inflammatory cardiovascular marker, were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays ELISA; Cusabio Biotech, Wuhan, China.
Statistical analysis Values are expressed as mean ± SD unless otherwise indicated. Results There were no significant differences in mean body weights and blood lipid levels between the animal groups at the beginning of the study.
Download: PPT. Figure 1. Plasma total lycopene levels in individual rabbits after feeding the indicated diets for 4 weeks. Figure 3. Surface lipid depositions in explanted aortae in the three high-cholesterol groups. Figure 4. Levels of cholesteryl ester in the aortae of rabbits after supplementation for 4 weeks.
Figure 5. Microphotographs and intima-media thickness of the ascending aortae in individual animals after the indicated diets. Figure 6. In vitro vasorelaxation studies after the animal experiment. Discussion The main results of our study are that lycopene supplementation for 4 weeks strongly suppressed diet-induced increases in total and LDL cholesterol levels in serum and reduced the accumulation of cholesteryl esters in aortic tissue of rabbits.
Acknowledgments The authors thank Minoo Moobed, Thomas Düsterhöft, Angelika Vietzke, Wanda Michaelis, and Susanne Metzkow for their excellent technical assistance. Author Contributions Conceived and designed the experiments: ML MF VB GB KS VS.
References 1. Blum A, Monir M, Wirsansky I, Ben-Arzi S The beneficial effects of tomatoes. Eur J Intern Med — Review Articles September 08 Effect of Lycopene and Tomato Products on Cholesterol Metabolism Subject Area: Endocrinology , Further Areas , Nutrition and Dietetics , Public Health.
Palozza ; P. a Institutes of General Pathology and. This Site. Google Scholar. Catalano ; A. Simone ; R. Mele ; M. b Biochemistry and Clinical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Catholic University, Rome, Italy. Cittadini A. Ann Nutr Metab 61 2 : — Article history Received:.
Cite Icon Cite. toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu. toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest. View large Download slide. Table 1 Modulatory effects of lycopene, lycopene derivatives and tomato products on cholesterol pathways in cell culture studies. View large. View Large. Table 2 Modulatory effects of lycopene and tomato products on cholesterol metabolism in animal studies.
Steinberg D: Thematic review series: the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. An interpretive history of the cholesterol controversy: part II: the early evidence linking hypercholesterolemia to coronary disease in humans.
J Lipid Res ;— Ballantyne C, Arroll B, Shepherd J: Lipids and CVD management: towards a global consensus. Eur Heart J ;— Meagher EA: Addressing cardiovascular risk beyond low-density lipoprotein cholesterol: the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol story. Curr Cardiol Rep ;— Ginsberg HN, Stalenhoef AF: The metabolic syndrome: targeting dyslipidaemia to reduce coronary risk.
J Cardiovasc Risk ;— Brown MS, Goldstein JL: A receptor-mediated pathway for cholesterol homeostasis. Science ;— Brown MS, Goldstein JL: Multivalent feedback regulation of HMG CoA reductase, a control mechanism coordinating isoprenoid synthesis and cell growth.
Stacy TA, Egger A: Results of retrospective chart review to determine improvement in lipid goal attainment in patients treated by high-volume prescribers of lipid-modifying drugs.
J Manag Care Pharm ;— Ray KK, Cannon CP, Ganz P: Beyond lipid lowering: what have we learned about the benefits of statins from the acute coronary syndromes trials? Am J Cardiol ;— Khush KK, Waters DD: Effects of statin therapy on the development and progression of heart failure: mechanisms and clinical trials.
J Card Fail ;— Clearfield M: Statins and the primary prevention of cardiovascular events. Curr Atheroscler Rep ;— Talbert RL: Safety issues with statin therapy. J Am Pharm Assoc ;— Parra JL, Reddy KR: Hepatotoxicity of hypolipidemic drugs. Clin Liver Dis ;— Kiortsis DN, Filippatos TD, Mikhailidis DP, Elisaf MS, Liberopoulos EN: Statin-associated adverse effects beyond muscle and liver toxicity.
Atherosclerosis ;— Trifiro G: Drug-drug interactions and statin therapy. South Med J ;— Neuvonen PJ, Niemi M, Backman JT: Drug interactions with lipid lowering drugs: mechanisms and clinical relevance.
Clin Pharmacol Ther ;— Rao AV, Agarwal S: Role of antioxidant lycopene in cancer and heart disease. J Am Coll Nutr ;— Stahl W, Sies H: Lycopene: a biologically important carotenoid for humans?
Arch Biochem Biophys ;—9. Clinton SK: Lycopene: chemistry, biology, and implications for human health and disease. Nutr Rev ;— Agarwal S, Rao AV: Carotenoids and chronic diseases.
Drug Metab Drug Interact ;— Agarwal A, Shen H, Agarwal S, Rao A: Lycopene content of tomato products: its stability, bioavailability and in vivo antioxidant properties.
J Med Food ;— Rao AV, Ray MR, Rao LG: Lycopene. Adv Food Nutr Res ;— Zaripheh S, Erdman JW Jr: The biodistribution of a single oral dose of [ 14 C]-lycopene in rats prefed either a control or lycopene rich diet. J Nutr ;— Rao AV: Lycopene tomatoes and the prevention of coronary heart disease.
Exp Biol Med ;— Heber D, Lu QY: Overview of mechanism of action of lycopene. Edwards PA, Ericsson J: Sterols and isoprenoids: signaling molecules derived from the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway.
Annu Rev Biochem ;— Istvan ES, Deisenhofer J: Structural mechanism for statin inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase. Bilheimer DW, Grundy SM, Brown MS, Goldstein JL: Mevinolin and colestipol stimulate receptor-mediated clearance of low density lipoprotein from plasma in familial hypercholesterolemia heterozygote.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA ;— Fuhrman B, Elis A, Aviram M: Hypocholesterolemic effect of lycopene and beta-carotene is related to suppression of cholesterol synthesis and augmentation of LDL receptor activity in macrophages. Biochem Biophys Res Commun ;— Palozza P, Simone R, Catalano A, Monego G, Barini A, Mele MC, Parrone N, Trombino S, Picci N, Ranelletti FO: Lycopene prevention of oxysterol-induced proinflammatory cytokine cascade in human macrophages: inhibition of NF-ĸB nuclear binding and increase in PPARγ expression.
J Nutr Biochem ;— Oram JF: ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 and cholesterol trafficking. Curr Opin Lipidol ;— Gargalovic P, Ladislav D: Caveolins and macrophage lipid metabolism. Lipid Res ;— Fielding CJ, Fielding PE: Caveolae and intracellular trafficking of cholesterol.
Adv Drug Deliv Rev ;— Hu Q, Zhang XJ, Liu CX, Wang XP, Zhang Y: PPARγ1-induced caveolin-1 enhances cholesterol efflux and attenuates atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. J Vasc Res ;— During A, Dawson HD, Harrison EH: Carotenoid transport is decreased and expression of the lipid transporters SR-BI, NPC1L1, and ABCA1 is downregulated in Caco-2 cells treated with ezetimibe.
Lazar MA: Progress in cardiovascular biology: PPAR for the course. Nat Med ;— Burgermeister E, Tencer L, Liscocitch M: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma upregulates caveolin-1 and caveolin-2 expression in human carcinoma cells. Oncogene ;— Llaverias G, Vazquez-Carrera M, Sanchez RM, Noe V, Ciudad CJ, Laguna JC, Alegret M: Rosiglitazone upregulates caveolin-1 expression in THP-1 cells through a PPAR-dependent mechanism.
Wang X, Sato R, Brown MS, Hua X, Goldstein JL: SREBP-1, a membrane-bound transcription factor released by sterol-regulated proteolysis. Cell ;— Ness GC, Zhao Z, Lopez D: Inhibitors of cholesterol biosynthesis increase hepatic low-density lipoprotein receptor protein degradation.
Arch Biochem Biophys ;— Parker RA, Pearce BC, Clark RW, Gordon DA, Wright JJ: Tocotrienols regulate cholesterol production in mammalian cells by post-transcriptional suppression of 3-hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase.
J Biol Chem ;— Elson CE: Suppression of mevalonate pathway activities by dietary isoprenoids: protective roles in cancer and cardiovascular disease.
Pearce BC, Parker RA, Deason ME, Qureshi AA, Wright JJ: Hypocholesterolemic activity of synthetic and natural tocotrienols. J Med Chem ;— Manabe H, Murakami Y, El-Aasr M, Ikeda T, Fujiwara Y, Ono M, Nohara T: Content variations of the tomato saponin esculeoside A in various processed tomatoes.
J Nat Med ;— Fujiwara Y, Kiyota N, Hori M, Matsushita S, Iijima Y, Aoki K, Shibata D, Takeya M, Ikeda T, Nohara T, Nagai R: Esculeogenin A, new tomato sapogenol, ameliorates hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis in ApoE-deficient mice by inhibiting ACAT.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol ;— Yang JB, Duan ZJ, Yao W, Lee O, Yang L, Yang XY, Sun X, Chang CC, Chang TY, Li BL: Synergistic transcriptional activation of human Acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransterase-1 gene by interferon-gamma and all-trans-retinoic acid THP-1 cells.
Maung K, Miyazaki A, Nomiyama H, Chang CC, Chang TY, Horiuchi S: Induction of acyl-coenzyme A: cholesterol acyltransferase-1 by 1,dihydroxyvitamin D 3 or 9-cis-retinoic acid in undifferentiated THP-1 cells. Napolitano M, De Pascale C, Wheeler-Jones C, Botham KM, Bravo E: Effects of lycopene on the induction of foam cell formation by modified LDL.
Chllesterol Journal of Animal Ad AJAS ; 28 7 : Hydration during night-time endurance events Key Laboratory of Animal Lyfopene, College of Animal Science and Lycpene, China Agricultural University, BeijingCholesteorl. Lycopene and cholesterol © by Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences. Lycopene, a red non-provitamin A carotenoid, mainly presenting in tomato and tomato byproducts, has the highest antioxidant activity among carotenoids because of its high number of conjugated double bonds. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of lycopene supplementation in the diet on plasma lipid profile, lipid peroxidation and antioxidant defense system in feedlot lamb.
Lycopene and cholesterol -
This was a systematic review and meta-analysis that aimed to identify controlled studies that had investigated the effect of lycopene on blood lipids soluble fats , and blood pressure.
Lycopene is the chemical responsible for the red colouration of tomatoes, watermelon and other fruit. It is thought to have antioxidant effects and prevent the oxidation of low-density-lipoprotein bad cholesterol and prevent atherosclerosis — the fatty build-up in arteries that causes cardiovascular disease.
A systematic review is the best way of examining the global literature for trials that have examined the effects of a particular intervention. However, the reliability of its findings will depend on its methods and the characteristics of the studies that it includes.
This review chose to include studies that were not randomised controlled trials, the most robust study design for addressing this sort of question. By including other, less-robustly designed studies it means that the results may have been affected by differences between the groups, which have nothing to do with their lycopene intake.
Any meta-analysis also carries some inherent limitations if the individual studies it is combining vary in their methods and design, such as through their inclusion criteria, intervention methods, follow-up period and assessment of outcomes. The researchers searched the PubMed and Cochrane databases for studies published between and that had examined the effects of lycopene on blood lipids or blood pressure.
To be eligible trials had to be in English, be a diet- or placebo-controlled trial, used a standard natural lycopene dose, have an intervention period for at least two weeks and report average blood lipid levels total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, triglycerides or blood pressure levels before and after the intervention.
Subgroup analyses were carried out to see whether the dose of lycopene less than or greater to 25mg daily affected cholesterol, and whether the effect on blood pressure was influenced by baseline blood pressure whether or not the person had hypertension or not at the start of the study.
Fourteen studies met inclusion criteria, 12 investigating the effect of lycopene on total cholesterol and four also looking at blood pressure. Seven studies had a control group that either had a placebo or a lycopene-free-diet, while the remaining studies investigated lycopene-rich and lycopene-free periods in the same person.
Trials used lycopene-containing tomato products, watermelon juice or tomato extract capsules in one study these capsules also contained other carotenoid rich extracts , with lycopene doses ranging from mg daily. Treatment periods ranged between two and six weeks, with one trial using a six-month intervention period.
Six of the seven cholesterol studies were investigating people with high cholesterol, and two of the four blood pressure trials were investigating people with hypertension. When the 12 studies on cholesterol were pooled people lycopene treatment had no effect on cholesterol compared to control treatment mean difference from control However, when the researchers separately analysed those trials according to lycopene dose, they found that only doses at or above 25mg a day affected cholesterol and blood pressure.
There was no effect on diastolic blood pressure the lower blood pressure reading reflecting arterial pressure when the heart is filling with blood.
The researchers conclude that their meta-analysis suggests that lycopene taken in doses of 25mg daily or greater is effective in reducing LDL and total cholesterol. They call for more research to confirm suggested beneficial effects on total serum cholesterol and systolic blood pressure.
This review of the effects of lycopene on cholesterol and blood pressure has some limitations and this means that it cannot conclusively tell us whether lycopene has any effect on lowering cholesterol or blood pressure.
It definitely cannot tell us whether lycopene has any effect on the risk of heart disease. The points to note include:. Overall, it is not possible to say conclusively from this review that tomatoes or lycopene have any definite effect on cholesterol or blood pressure, and whether this is clinically significant.
Large randomised controlled trials will be needed to further investigate this question. In the interim, tomatoes and other lycopene-containing fruits can still contribute to our recommended five daily portions of fruit and vegetables.
Accept and close. Food and diet Do tomatoes really compare to statins? HDL 2 and HDL 3 were isolated from serum by rapid ultracentrifugation as previously described 22 , using a three-step procedure; a crude c HDL was isolated by a 2-h rapid sedimentation method, and then subfractionated into HDL 2 and HDL 3 by two, 2-h sequential rapid flotation ultracentrifugation procedures.
The concentrations of HDL 2 and HDL 3 -associated total protein, apolipoprotein AI apoAI , and SAA were reported using a dilution factor due to the process whereby the subfractions were isolated from serum. Initially, 1. Taking into consideration the initial volume and volumes retrieved 1.
Lycopene concentration was measured in serum and HDL 2 and HDL 3 by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography as previously described Apolipoprotein AI apoAI concentration in the HDL subfractions HDL 2 and HDL 3 was determined using single radial immunodiffusion as previously described SAA, in serum and associated with HDL 2 and HDL 3 , was analyzed by an ELISA Invitrogen UK, KHA , as per the manufacturer's instructions.
Analysis was performed using a Grifols TRITURUS system Italy. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein hsCRP was measured at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry at Aberdeen Royal Infirmary using a standardized automated procedure Behring nephelometry system.
Protein concentration within HDL 2 and HDL 3 was determined spectrophotometrically using the Biorad assay BioRad , Biorad Hemel Hempstead, UK as per the manufacturer's instructions.
Total protein concentration was utilized to standardize SAA, PON-1, CETP, and LCAT within HDL 2 and HDL 3.
Paraoxonase-1 PON-1 activity was measured by monitoring the hydrolysis of phenylacetate using a modification of the method of Hasselwander et al. The activity of CETP and LCAT was measured in HDL 2 and HDL 3 using commercially available fluorometric assays, as per the manufacturer's instructions CETP catalog no.
RB-CETP; LCAT catalog no. RB-LCAT; Roar Biomedical, NY, USA. During each visit, h fasted blood samples were taken from the antecubital fossa vein. All samples were analyzed in a single batch to reduce variability. Very low-density lipoprotein VLDL , LDL, and HDL subclasses concentrations and size in serum were determined by NMR Liposcience Inc.
Data on intermediate-density lipoprotein The diameter range of the lipoprotein subclasses is shown in Table 1. Baseline characteristics of the participants were comparable with regard to age, body mass index, blood pressure, and arterial stiffness Table 1.
More women than men were recruited; however, the proportion of women was similar in all the three groups. The slight imbalance in the number of subjects allocated per group was previously discussed Serum lycopene concentration was similar across the groups at baseline, but significantly increased after week intervention in both high tomato and lycopene supplement groups, compared to the low tomato group Both lycopene interventions significantly increased lycopene concentration in HDL 3 by Table 2.
Participant characteristics at baseline, by the intervention group a. Total protein and apoA1 in HDL 2 and HDL 3 were similar at baseline and remained unchanged after intervention in all the groups not shown.
None of the interventions affected hsCRP serum concentrations However, serum hsCRP and SAA concentrations were significantly positively associated at baseline Spearman's rho 0. These positive associations were also retained after each intervention. The effect of the interventions on SA concentrations in serum and HDL subfractions is shown in Table 3.
None of the interventions significantly affected SAA levels in HDL 2. Table 3. Lycopene concentration in HDL 2 , HDL 3 , and serum following week intervention with either a low tomato diet, lycopene supplement, or high tomato diet. The effects of the interventions on PON-1, LCAT, and CETP activities in HDL fractions are summarized in Tables 4 — 6 , respectively.
At baseline, PON-1 and LCAT activities were similar for both HDL 2 and HDL 3 fractions while CETP activity was significantly lower in HDL 2 from the high tomato group compared with the low tomato group ± 5.
However, PON-1 activity significantly increased by 7. Table 4. PON-1 activity in serum, HDL 2 , and HDL 3 following week intervention with either a low tomato diet, lycopene supplement, or high tomato diet. Table 5. LCAT activity in HDL 2 and HDL 3 following week intervention with either a low tomato diet, lycopene supplement, or high tomato diet.
Table 6. CETP activity in HDL 2 and HDL 3 following week intervention with either a low tomato diet, lycopene supplement, or high tomato diet. Table 7. SAA concentration in serum, HDL 2 , and HDL 3 following week intervention with either a low tomato diet, lycopene supplement, or high tomato diet.
The HDL subclasses distribution was similar between the groups at baseline and was not affected by the intervention Table 8. VLDL and LDL profiles also remained unchanged after intervention for all the study groups not shown. None of the dietary interventions significantly affected the size of lipoprotein classes Table 9.
Table 8. HDL subclass distribution in response to week intervention with high tomato, lycopene, and control diets. Table 9. Lipoprotein size in response to week intervention with high tomato, lycopene, and control diets a.
This is the first comprehensive study identifying a specific dietary component, lycopene, able to significantly modulate activities related to HDL functionality.
Our results confirm our preliminary results showing that dietary lycopene beneficially affects PON-1 activity in serum and HDL 3 These changes were associated with an increase in lycopene HDL content. PON-1 is an enzyme associated with HDL, particularly HDL 3 26 , which, via its proton-donating properties, inactivates peroxidized lipids removed from apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins Our results support previous findings in a diabetic rat model, which showed that lycopene restored PON-1 activity to normal levels Human trials with diets rich in carotenoids also support our findings.
In a small acute intervention, an increase in postprandial PON-1 activity concomitant to increased serum carotenoid concentrations was observed after ingestion of a Mediterranean-type meal in healthy subjects Similarly, a diet rich in fruit and vegetables has been shown to increase PON-1 activity in type-2 diabetic subjects compared to a Western-style diet Similar results were obtained after 1-year intervention with a traditional Mediterranean diet in people with a high risk of cardiovascular disease 31 and the authors suggested that bioactive compounds present in the diet, including carotenoids, could induce local antioxidant functions, preserve other dietary antioxidants in HDL lipoproteins, and protect PON1 against oxidative modifications or enhance its function.
Lecithin cholesterol acyltransferase LCAT is another enzyme closely associated with HDL 3 We observed an increase in LCAT-HDL 3 after a week intervention in both treatment groups, but only significant for the lycopene supplement group.
Other interventions with a traditional Mediterranean diet or diet rich in fruit and vegetable has also shown improvement in LCAT activity 30 , LCAT is very sensitive to oxidative attacks 35 and lycopene may contribute to maintaining LCAT as non-oxidized and functional. Lycopene, through its ability to quench free radicals via proton donation 36 , could donate electrons to LCAT, thus recycling LCAT's proton-donating site, overall increasing LCAT's anti-antioxidant activity.
Daniels et al. Cholesteryl ester transfer protein CETP plays a central role in cholesterol transfer from HDL to triglyceride-poor lipoproteins, and subsequently to the liver, and CETP activity is often increased in high-cardiovascular-risk states ref.
Unfortunately, we were unable to measure CETP activity in serum. However, it is likely that we would have observed a similar trend as CETP is majorly associated with HDL Other interventions with carotenoid-rich diets showed reductions in HDL 3 -CETP activity in hypertensive subjects and in HDL 2 -CETP activity in elderly subjects The mechanisms by which lycopene could influence CETP activity are unclear, but could involve a reduction in CETP expression in the liver and adipose tissue.
Unfortunately, due to sample availability, we were not able to determine the CETP content in serum and in HDL fractions. Interestingly, the changes observed in enzymatic activities associated with HDL functionality were negatively associated with a This suggests that increased lycopene intake beneficially lowers SAA-related inflammation.
Like PON-1 and LCAT, SAA is particularly associated with HDL 3 39 , therefore, any effects would be less readily identifiable in HDL 2 , which explains the lack of significant effect of the intervention observed in that particular HDL subfraction.
SAA is an acute-phase protein that associates with HDL, rendering these particles dysfunctional, with reduced reverse transport of cholesterol 40 , antioxidant 41 , and anti-inflammatory 26 capabilities. Therefore, reducing SAA HDL content may be beneficial for HDL functionality.
However, SAA renders HDL dysfunctional during a severe inflammatory response, when SAA can become the main apolipoprotein present on HDL 42 and the changes in SAA content might only be an indication of lycopene anti-inflammatory effects, and not related to HDL functionality.
Lycopene has the ability to minimize the production and secretion of SAA from the liver and adipocytes 43 , 44 , which reduces systemic and HDL-related inflammation 44 , which might explain the results observed. The effects on HDL functionality and SAA observed were not associated with changes in HDL 2 and HDL 3 apoA1 content, which remained unchanged after intervention in all the groups results not shown.
This is in contradiction with previous findings reporting a significant increase in apoA1 concentration in subjects with type 2 diabetics who had consumed g of raw tomatoes daily for 8 weeks SAA concentration is inversely associated with apoA1 concentration 26 , 46 while no change in apoA1 concentration following a reduction in SAA has also been reported It is possible that apoA1 may have been redistributed within the HDL particles, thus meaning that there was no overall net change in apoA1 concentration.
HDL can carry different numbers of apoA1 molecules 27 , therefore, the loss of SAA from one specific HDL particle may allow apoA1 to be redistributed to another HDL particle, without changing the overall apoA1 HDL concentration.
The changes observed were also not associated with a concomitant change in lipoprotein subclass distribution and size. To our knowledge, this is the first time the effects of dietary lycopene on lipoprotein subclass distribution and size have been described.
Carotenoids, including lycopene, circulate in the plasma bound to lipoproteins, and despite the significant enrichment in lycopene concentration both in serum and HDL, the particle subclasses and sizes remained unchanged.
However, our dietary interventions were minimal in comparison, and carried out on healthier subjects. Tomatoes are also rich in other phytochemicals and minerals which may potentially also alter HDL function and SAA content. However, the effects being more pronounced and predominant in the lycopene group compared with the high tomato diet strongly suggest that lycopene was responsible for improving HDL functionality and decreasing HDL-associated SAA content.
The lycopene supplementation level and the dietary intervention were physiologically relevant and perfectly achievable. To our knowledge, no previous trial compared appropriately a lycopene supplement with a high-tomato diet, using an appropriate control arm.
We measured the activities of three key enzymes CETP, PON-1, and LCAT and an inflammatory marker associated with HDL SAA. However, we could not assess fully all aspects of HDL functionality, such as HDL cholesterol efflux capacity.
We could also not determine the HDL mass content of the enzymes, and CETP and LCAT activities in serum. Further studies, namely, full HDL lipidomic and proteomic profile, are warranted to investigate the mechanisms by which dietary lycopene improves HDL function and whether these properties convey cardio protective effects.
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation. FT designed the randomized controlled trial and drafted the article. FT and JM designed lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein experiments.
JM and JW supervised S-LH. AR and NV conducted the trial. S-LH, AR, NV, and SM conducted laboratory analyses. S-LH, FT, JM, and JW analyzed data. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. This research was commissioned by the Food Standards Agency grant number No.
FT received funding from the Scottish Government RESAS. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
CETP, cholesteryl ester transfer protein; CVD, cardiovascular disease; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LCAT, lecithin cholesterol acyl transferase; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; PON-1, paraoxonase 1; SAA, serum amyloid A; VLDL, very low-density lipoprotein.
Sesso HD, Liu S, Gaziano JM, Buring JE. Dietary lycopene, tomato-based food products and cardiovascular disease in women. J Nutr doi: PubMed Abstract CrossRef Full Text Google Scholar. Jacques PF, Lyass A, Massaro JM, Vasan RS, D'Agostino RB Sr.
Relationship of lycopene intake consumption of tomato products to incident CVD. Br J Nutr. Mazidi M, Katsiki N, George ES, Banach M. Tomato and lycopene consumption is inversely associated with total and cause-specific mortality: a population-based cohort study, on behalf of the international lipid expert panel ILEP.
Xu X, Li S, Zhu Y. Dietary intake of tomato and lycopene and risk of all-cause and cause-specific mortality: results from a prospective study. Front Nutr.
Saini RK, Rengasamy KRR, Mahomoodally FM, Keum YS. Protective effects of lycopene in cancer, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases: an update on epidemiological and mechanistic perspectives.
Pharmacol Res. Petyaev IM, Dovgalevsky PY, Klochkov VA, Chalyk NE, Pristensky DV, Chernyshova MP, et al. Effect of lycopene supplementation on cardiovascular parameters and markers of inflammation and oxidation in patients with coronary vascular disease.
Food Sci Nutr. Cheng HM, Koutsidis G, Lodge JK, Ashor A, Siervo M, Lara J, et al. Tomato and lycopene supplementation and cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Li H, Chen A, Zhao L, Bhagavathula AS, Amirthalingam P, Rahmani J, et al. Effect of tomato consumption on fasting blood glucose and lipid profiles: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Phytother Res. Valderas-Martinez P, Chiva-Blanch G, Casas R, Arranz S, Martinez-Huelamo M, Urpi-Sarda, et al.
Tomato sauce enriched with olive oil exerts greater effects on cardiovascular disease risk factors than raw tomato and tomato sauce: a randomized trial.
Gajendragadkar PR, Hubsch A, Maki-Petaja KM, Serg M, Wilkinson IB, Cheriyan J, et al. Effects of oral lycopene supplementation on vascular function in patients with cardiovascular disease and healthy volunteers: a randomised controlled trial.
PLoS ONE. Arranz S, Martinez-Huelamo M, Vallverdu-Queralt A, Valderas-Martinez P, Illan M, Sacanella E, et al. Influence of olive oil on carotenoid absorption from tomato juice and effects on postprandial lipemia.
Food Chem. Tierney AC, Rumble CE, Billings LM, George ES. Effect of dietary and supplemental lycopene on cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Thies F, Masson LF, Rudd A, Vaughan N, Tsang C, Brittenden J, et al. Effect of a tomato-rich diet on markers of cardiovascular disease risk in moderately overweight, disease-free, middle-aged adults: a randomized controlled trial.
Am J Clin Nutr. McEneny J, Wade L, Young IS, Masson L, Duthie G, McGinty A, et al. Lycopene reduces inflammation and improves HDL functionality in moderately overweight middle aged individuals.
J Nutr Biochem. Movva IR, Rader D.
Lycopene is a lipophilic, unsaturated carotenoid, found in red-colored fruits and vegetables, Lycopene and cholesterol tomatoes, watermelon, papaya, red grapefruits, Lycopend guava. The present hcolesterol provides an up to date overview of Choledterol linking Diabetes prevention strategies in the human diet and vascular changes, Ltcopene epidemiological data, clinical studies, Training and nutrition for aging athletes experimental data. Lycopene Lydopene improve vascular function Lycopeene contributes to cholestedol primary and secondary Hydration and immune system function of cardiovascular disorders. The main activity profile of lycopene includes antiatherosclerotic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, antiplatelet, anti-apoptotic, and protective endothelial effects, the ability to improve the metabolic profile, and reduce arterial stiffness. In this context, lycopene has been shown in numerous studies choleeterol exert a favorable effect in patients with subclinical atherosclerosis, Lhcopene syndrome, hypertension, peripheral Lycpoene disease, stroke and several other cardiovascular disorders, although the obtained results are sometimes inconsistent, which warrants further studies focusing on its bioactivity. Cardiovascular disorders CVD are the leading mortality cause worldwide and prophylactic measures to combat it deserve special attention. Atherosclerosis is, in most cases, the main manifestation of CVD, and its progression may be clinical silent for a long time, up to a certain moment, when it directly leads into a severe adverse event e.
0 thoughts on “Lycopene and cholesterol”